Balancing Efficiency and Equity: Evidence From India’s Technology- Intermediated Transport Services Under The GST Regime

Description: This report examines the evolving taxation landscape of India’s technology-intermediated transport services (TIS) sector, where platforms such as Ola, Uber, Rapido, and Namma Yatri connect millions of drivers and passengers every day. It explores the application of Section 9(5) of the CGST Act and assesses whether existing GST rules, originally designed for commission-based platform models, remain appropriate as subscription-based (SAAS) models gain prominence. Drawing on a primary survey of 1,059 passengers and 1,044 drivers across 13 Indian cities, the report provides empirical evidence on how tax design shapes platform incentives, driver earnings, passenger welfare, and market outcomes.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Shweta Venkatesan, Aaqib Qayoom and Avneet Oberoi.

A Critical Assessment of the Ecosystem Theory of Harm

Description: the emergence of digital ecosystems has spawned the rise of the ecosystem theory of harm – which posits that mergers or conduct within digital ecosystems can result in anti-competitive outcomes through entrenchment, user lock-in, and foreclosure, even when traditional markers of market power are not apparent. However, there are several shortcomings of this theory. Firstly, critics argue there is no meaningful distinguishing characteristic in the ecosystem theory of harm that separates it from existing competition principles used to govern markets. Secondly, scholars argue that current articulations of theory have ambiguous implications for antitrust enforcement. Further, ecosystems benefit both businesses and consumers in digital markets. Given these gaps, this paper questions whether a so-called digital ecosystem merits a new theory of harm beyond the existing frames of competition analysis.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Shweta Venkatesan. A Critical Assessment of the Ecosystem Theory of Harm. May 2026, Esya Centre

An Empirical Evaluation of the Ease of Doing Business for E-Commerce Firms in India

Description: This paper examines the state of ease of doing business in India for e-commerce firms, based on a quantitative and qualitative survey of 50 firms from across the country, and provides suggestions on certain reforms that may be undertaken to unlock rapid growth in the sector. The paper is divided into two sections. Part 1 provides a quantitative overview of firms' perceptions of different EoDB parameters. Part 2 draws on qualitative inputs from firms and highlights specific areas where reforms could be introduced to catalyse growth.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Aaqib Qayoom, Avneet Oberoi and Shweta Venkatesan. An Empirical Evaluation of the Ease of Doing Business for E-Commerce Firms in India. May 2026, Esya Centre

Assessing the Complementarity of Physical and Digital Retail

Description: The retail sector is an important pillar of the India’s economic development. The Indian retail sector is characterised by a symbiotic presence of physical stores and electronic commerce (e-commerce) channels. However, the distinction between physical retail and e-commerce is blurring. Given the higher growth in e-commerce, many physical retailers are also integrating digital technologies to increase their sales.

The report draws on a survey of 1,030 consumers in 10 urban and semi-urban cities across India to understand their shopping preferences. It finds that physical retail and e-commerce operate within a mutually reinforcing ecosystem, where competitive pressures and complementarities drive innovation, accessibility, and better outcomes for consumers.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Tamanna Sharma, and Shweta Venkatesan. Assessing the Complementarity of Physical and Digital Retail . May 2026, Esya Centre

Response to Consultation Paper on Formulation of the Regulatory Framework for Application-based Linear Television Distribution Services (Including Free Ad-Supported Streaming Television Services)

Description: On 06 April 2026, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India published a Consultation Paper on Formulation of the Regulatory Framework for Application-based Linear Television Distribution (ALTD) Services (Including Free Ad-Supported Streaming Television (FAST) Services)

The Esya Centre is delighted to have had the opportunity to respond to the public consultation on the Consultation Paper on Formulation of a Regulatory Framework for Application-based Linear Television Distribution (ALTD) Services (Including Free Ad-Supported Streaming Television (FAST) Services)

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan. Response to Consultation Paper on Formulation of a Regulatory Framework for Application-based Linear Television Distribution (ALTD) Services (Including Free Ad-Supported Streaming Television (FAST) Services), Issue No. 124, May 2026, Esya Centre

An Empirical Assessment of India’s AI Value Chain: Market Structure, Competition, and Innovation Dynamics

Description: This report examines market structure across four interconnected layers of the AI value chain: infrastructure (cloud and specialised hardware), models, data, and applications. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is widely recognised as a general-purpose technology with transformative potential across economic sectors. Its rapid advancement has sparked intense debate about market concentration and competitive dynamics across the AI value chain.

The report draws on a primary survey of 227 firms across the infrastructure, foundation model, data, and application segments of the AI ecosystem. It finds that India’s AI ecosystem remains dynamic and contestable across layers, with firms actively adopting multi-cloud strategies, combining open-source and proprietary models, and experimenting with decentralised deployment architectures

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Aaqib Qayoom, and Avneet Oberoi. An Empirical Assessment of India’s AI Value Chain: Market Structure, Competition, and Innovation Dynamics. May 2026, Esya Centre.

Response to Draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Second Amendment Rules, 2026

Description: On 30 March 2026, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology published draft amendments to the IT Rules, 2021, inviting public comments.

The Esya Centre is delighted to have had the opportunity to respond to the public consultation on the Draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Second Amendment Rules, 2026.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan and Madeeha Arshad. Response to Draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Second Amendment Rules, 2026, Issue No. 123, May 2026, Esya Centre

A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act on Indian MSMEs and AI Innovation

Description: This report highlights how Sections 3(c)(ii) and 7 of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) disrupt innovation, raise compliance costs, and render even routine tasks impossible for AI start-ups and small businesses in India. It provides empirical evidence based on a primary survey of 300 firms across major urban centers and Tier-2 cities. The survey assesses how restrictions on processing publicly available personal data under Section 3(c)(ii), and the omission of legitimate interest and contractual necessity from Section 7 affect businesses’ operations, investment plans, and innovation capacities.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Shweta Venkatesan and Aaqib Qayoom, A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act on Indian MSMEs and AI Innovation, March 2026, Esya Centre.

An Empirical Assessment of Regulatory Design and Consumer Experience in Indian Broadcasting

Description: This report explores the disconnect between regulatory design and consumer satisfaction in the cable and satellite television broadcasting sector. Based on a survey of 2,037 households across 15 cities, the report examines how regulatory design, pricing architecture, and distribution dynamics impact consumer welfare and market outcomes in the broadcasting sector.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Shweta Venkatesan, An Empirical Assessment of Regulatory Design and Consumer Experience in Indian Broadcasting, March 2026, Esya Centre.

Response To Part I of DPIIT's Working Paper on Generative Artificial Intelligence and Copyright

Description: On 09 December 2025, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) released Part I of its working paper on the intersection of generative artificial intelligence and copyright law. The paper sets out the recommendations of an eight-member committee tasked with examining whether India’s existing copyright framework adequately addresses the challenges posed by generative AI.

The Esya Centre is pleased to be afforded an opportunity to provide its inputs on these recommendations .

Our response is structured in two parts. Part A argues that the working paper rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of copyright and the technical realities of AI model training. Part B contends that the paper’s proposed hybrid model fails to improve outcomes for either content creators or AI developers.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan. Response to Part I of DPIIT’s Working Paper on Generative Artificial Intelligence and Copyright, Issue No. 122, February 2026, Esya Centre

Analysis of Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2026

Description: The government has notified the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2026 on synthetically generated information (SGI).

Our rule-wise comparison shows that while the drafting has evolved, the notified Rules remain premised on the same erroneous assumptions as the Draft — and significantly intensify compliance burdens.

The Impact of a Network Usage Fee on Consumers and the Digital Economy: An Empirical Evaluation

Description: This report presents a comprehensive assessment of the potential consequences of imposing traffic-based charges on digital services. Drawing on a mixed-methods approach, the study combines insights from 38 experts across public policy, academia, civil society and industry, along with a national survey of over 2,000 consumers across Tier I, II and III cities

It provides a comprehensive overview of the consequences associated with the imposition of network usage fees on CAPs in India.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Dr Vikash Gautam, and Kunal Tyagi. The Impact of a Network Usage Fee on Consumers and the Digital Economy: An Empirical Evaluation. January 2026, Esya Centre.

An In-Depth Assessment of the Intersection of AI and Copyright in India

Description: India has the world’s third-largest start-up ecosystem, with the Department for the Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (“DPIIT”) having recognised over 1.59 lakh start-ups as of January 2025. An increasing proportion of these entities are generative AI-focused: while India had approximately 66 homegrown generative AI start-ups in 2023, this number shot up to 240+ by 2024. This growth is not limited to one layer of the generative AI ecosystem, but straddles both models and applications. For example, 2023-2024 witnessed the launch of over 17 native large language models, and a threefold growth in the number of generative AI applications. Given these promising figures, some estimate that India’s homegrown generative AI market will cross a valuation of USD 17 billion by 2030.

However, India’s ability to capitalise on this potential hinges on how policymakers address the intersection of generative AI with copyright law. Both globally and in India, the uptake of generative AI has spurred lawsuits alleging copyright infringement along the generative AI value chain. At the input stage of the value chain, stakeholders like news organisations, artists and authors claim that their copyright-protected works are unauthorisedly ingested as training data for various AI models.5 Meanwhile, at the output stage, they flag concerns regarding the regurgitation and adaptation of copyright-protected material in AI-generated outputs.6 In addition to these concerns, AI-generated outputs challenge traditional notions of authorship and ownership under copyright law, creating uncertainty around their legal status. Consensus among courts, copyright law practitioners and scholars remains elusive, leaving policymakers seeking to balance the interests of content creators and innovators in flux.

It is in this broader context that the AIKC and Esya Centre convened a roundtable to discuss the intersection of copyright and AI. Subsequently, the Esya Centre hosted a webinar of local and international legal experts and AI start-up founders to delve more deeply into this issue. The goal of both discussions was to engage in a nuanced, evidence-based dialogue, while foregrounding the need to promote innovation and Indian technological leadership. This outcome report builds on both these events.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan, An In-Depth Assessment of the Intersection of AI and Copyright in India, November 2025, Esya Centre.

Response to the Public Consultation on the Draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2025

Description: On 22 October 2025, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology invited feedback/comments of stakeholders on the Draft amendments to Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.  The rules seek to address challenges posed by the growing use of synthetically generated information (“SGI”), such as the proliferation of deepfakes, misinformation, and other forms of unlawful content. The Esya Centre is pleased to be afforded an opportunity to provide its inputs on these rules .

Our response is divided into two parts: Part A offers an overview of our response, while Part B provides a detailed analysis of specific rules.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan and Madeeha Arshad. Response to the Public Consultation on the Draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2025, Issue No. 121, November 2025, Esya Centre

A Survey Based Assessment of the Impact of Digital Competition Laws on the Internationalisation of MSMEs

Description: This report examines the extent to which Indian micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) rely on personalised advertising on large digital platforms such as social media, e-commerce, and search engines for their internationalisation. It also seeks to understand the impact any regulation or legislation can have on the internationalisation of MSMEs, if it restricts their ability to effectively offer personalised ads through these platforms

It provides empirical evidence based on a survey data of 102 MSMEs across India between November and December 2024.

Attribution: Tamanna Sharma, Meghna Bal, and Dr Vikash Gautam. A Survey Based Assessment Of The Impact Of Digital Competition Laws On The Internationalisation Of MSMEs. November 2025, Esya Centre.

Response to The Draft Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Rules, 2025

Description: On 02 October 2025, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology published the Draft of “The Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Rules, 2025” inviting stakeholder feedback and comments. Broadly, the Draft Rules aim to enable the structured growth of legitimate e-sports and online social games. The Esya Centre is pleased to be afforded an opportunity to provide its inputs on these rules.

Our response is divided into two parts: Part A offers an overview and summary, while Part B provides a detailed analysis of specific rules.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan, Response to the Consultation on the Draft Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Rules, 2025, Issue No. 120, October 2025, Esya Centre

Free-ranging Dogs in India : An Empirical Analysis of Human-Animal Interactions

Description: Recently, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India issued a series of directives concerning the removal of stray dogs from the Delhi-NCR region. This policy brief examines the evolving policy discourse on community dog management in India. Drawing on new empirical evidence and national-level survey data, it advances a humane, evidence-based framework that aligns public health priorities with the country’s ethical and legal responsibilities. The brief highlights the proven effectiveness of the Animal Birth Control (ABC) and Anti-Rabies Vaccination (ARV) programmes in reducing rabies-related mortality and fostering safer human–animal coexistence. It calls for strengthening this framework through better institutional coordination, reliable data systems, and active citizen participation to ensure a scientifically grounded and ethically consistent approach.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Aaqib Qayoom. Free-ranging dogs in India: An Empirical Analysis of Human-Animal Interactions. Working Paper Issue No. 216, November 2025. Esya Centre

Response to the Consultation on the Review of the EU's Digital Markets Act

Description: This response to the European Commission’s consultation on the review of the Digital Markets Act (DMA) highlights how flaws in the framework’s design, thresholds, obligations, and enforcement risk undermining its stated objectives of fairness and contestability. Instead of creating a predictable and balanced regulatory environment, the DMA in practice reflects arbitrary choices that target global non- EU technology companies, distort competition, and harm consumers and small businesses. 

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan. Response to the Consultation on the Review of the EU's Digital Markets Act, Issue No. 119, September 2025, Esya Centre

An Empirical Appraisal of the Children’s Data Privacy Provisions in the DPDPA

Description: This report aims to understand the impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act’s (DPDPA’s) restrictions on the processing of children’s personal data. In particular, it focuses on three aspects – (i) the impact of the DPDPA’s verifiable parental consent (“VPC”) requirement on small businesses and children; (ii) the impact of the DPDPA’s restrictions on personalised digital experiences and content for children; and (iii) the impact of the DPDPA’s restrictions on targeted advertising on businesses that produce products and services for children, especially those that may be beneficial to children’s development.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan, Meghna Bal, and Vikash Gautam, An Empirical Appraisal of the Children’s Data Privacy Provisions in the DPDPA, September 2025, Esya Centre.

Trade Talks at a Crossroads: An Assessment of India–US Positions on Services and Digital Markets

Description: This report is based on collaborative research by four leading Indian policy and research institutions, and builds on discussions from a multistakeholder workshop in June 2025, which included diverse stakeholders from relevant sectors and professional backgrounds. It aims to contribute to a more informed and constructive understanding of how India and the US can approach digital and services trade in a manner that is both commercially meaningful and mutually respectful of each other’s policy imperatives

Attribution: Dhruv Shekhar, Srishti Joshi, Meghna Bal, Sanjay Notani, Shishir Priyadarshi. Trade Talks at a Crossroads: An Assessment of India–US Positions on Services and Digital Markets, August 2024, Esya Centre, Koan Advisory Group, Economic Laws Practice and Chintan Research Foundation