Balancing Efficiency and Equity: Evidence From India’s Technology- Intermediated Transport Services Under The GST Regime

Description: This report examines the evolving taxation landscape of India’s technology-intermediated transport services (TIS) sector, where platforms such as Ola, Uber, Rapido, and Namma Yatri connect millions of drivers and passengers every day. It explores the application of Section 9(5) of the CGST Act and assesses whether existing GST rules, originally designed for commission-based platform models, remain appropriate as subscription-based (SAAS) models gain prominence. Drawing on a primary survey of 1,059 passengers and 1,044 drivers across 13 Indian cities, the report provides empirical evidence on how tax design shapes platform incentives, driver earnings, passenger welfare, and market outcomes.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Shweta Venkatesan, Aaqib Qayoom and Avneet Oberoi.

A Critical Assessment of the Ecosystem Theory of Harm

Description: the emergence of digital ecosystems has spawned the rise of the ecosystem theory of harm – which posits that mergers or conduct within digital ecosystems can result in anti-competitive outcomes through entrenchment, user lock-in, and foreclosure, even when traditional markers of market power are not apparent. However, there are several shortcomings of this theory. Firstly, critics argue there is no meaningful distinguishing characteristic in the ecosystem theory of harm that separates it from existing competition principles used to govern markets. Secondly, scholars argue that current articulations of theory have ambiguous implications for antitrust enforcement. Further, ecosystems benefit both businesses and consumers in digital markets. Given these gaps, this paper questions whether a so-called digital ecosystem merits a new theory of harm beyond the existing frames of competition analysis.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Shweta Venkatesan. A Critical Assessment of the Ecosystem Theory of Harm. May 2026, Esya Centre

An Empirical Evaluation of the Ease of Doing Business for E-Commerce Firms in India

Description: This paper examines the state of ease of doing business in India for e-commerce firms, based on a quantitative and qualitative survey of 50 firms from across the country, and provides suggestions on certain reforms that may be undertaken to unlock rapid growth in the sector. The paper is divided into two sections. Part 1 provides a quantitative overview of firms' perceptions of different EoDB parameters. Part 2 draws on qualitative inputs from firms and highlights specific areas where reforms could be introduced to catalyse growth.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Aaqib Qayoom, Avneet Oberoi and Shweta Venkatesan. An Empirical Evaluation of the Ease of Doing Business for E-Commerce Firms in India. May 2026, Esya Centre

Assessing the Complementarity of Physical and Digital Retail

Description: The retail sector is an important pillar of the India’s economic development. The Indian retail sector is characterised by a symbiotic presence of physical stores and electronic commerce (e-commerce) channels. However, the distinction between physical retail and e-commerce is blurring. Given the higher growth in e-commerce, many physical retailers are also integrating digital technologies to increase their sales.

The report draws on a survey of 1,030 consumers in 10 urban and semi-urban cities across India to understand their shopping preferences. It finds that physical retail and e-commerce operate within a mutually reinforcing ecosystem, where competitive pressures and complementarities drive innovation, accessibility, and better outcomes for consumers.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Tamanna Sharma, and Shweta Venkatesan. Assessing the Complementarity of Physical and Digital Retail . May 2026, Esya Centre

An Empirical Assessment of India’s AI Value Chain: Market Structure, Competition, and Innovation Dynamics

Description: This report examines market structure across four interconnected layers of the AI value chain: infrastructure (cloud and specialised hardware), models, data, and applications. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is widely recognised as a general-purpose technology with transformative potential across economic sectors. Its rapid advancement has sparked intense debate about market concentration and competitive dynamics across the AI value chain.

The report draws on a primary survey of 227 firms across the infrastructure, foundation model, data, and application segments of the AI ecosystem. It finds that India’s AI ecosystem remains dynamic and contestable across layers, with firms actively adopting multi-cloud strategies, combining open-source and proprietary models, and experimenting with decentralised deployment architectures

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Aaqib Qayoom, and Avneet Oberoi. An Empirical Assessment of India’s AI Value Chain: Market Structure, Competition, and Innovation Dynamics. May 2026, Esya Centre.

A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act on Indian MSMEs and AI Innovation

Description: This report highlights how Sections 3(c)(ii) and 7 of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) disrupt innovation, raise compliance costs, and render even routine tasks impossible for AI start-ups and small businesses in India. It provides empirical evidence based on a primary survey of 300 firms across major urban centers and Tier-2 cities. The survey assesses how restrictions on processing publicly available personal data under Section 3(c)(ii), and the omission of legitimate interest and contractual necessity from Section 7 affect businesses’ operations, investment plans, and innovation capacities.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Shweta Venkatesan and Aaqib Qayoom, A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act on Indian MSMEs and AI Innovation, March 2026, Esya Centre.

An Empirical Assessment of Regulatory Design and Consumer Experience in Indian Broadcasting

Description: This report explores the disconnect between regulatory design and consumer satisfaction in the cable and satellite television broadcasting sector. Based on a survey of 2,037 households across 15 cities, the report examines how regulatory design, pricing architecture, and distribution dynamics impact consumer welfare and market outcomes in the broadcasting sector.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Shweta Venkatesan, An Empirical Assessment of Regulatory Design and Consumer Experience in Indian Broadcasting, March 2026, Esya Centre.

The Impact of a Network Usage Fee on Consumers and the Digital Economy: An Empirical Evaluation

Description: This report presents a comprehensive assessment of the potential consequences of imposing traffic-based charges on digital services. Drawing on a mixed-methods approach, the study combines insights from 38 experts across public policy, academia, civil society and industry, along with a national survey of over 2,000 consumers across Tier I, II and III cities

It provides a comprehensive overview of the consequences associated with the imposition of network usage fees on CAPs in India.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Dr Vikash Gautam, and Kunal Tyagi. The Impact of a Network Usage Fee on Consumers and the Digital Economy: An Empirical Evaluation. January 2026, Esya Centre.

A Survey Based Assessment of the Impact of Digital Competition Laws on the Internationalisation of MSMEs

Description: This report examines the extent to which Indian micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) rely on personalised advertising on large digital platforms such as social media, e-commerce, and search engines for their internationalisation. It also seeks to understand the impact any regulation or legislation can have on the internationalisation of MSMEs, if it restricts their ability to effectively offer personalised ads through these platforms

It provides empirical evidence based on a survey data of 102 MSMEs across India between November and December 2024.

Attribution: Tamanna Sharma, Meghna Bal, and Dr Vikash Gautam. A Survey Based Assessment Of The Impact Of Digital Competition Laws On The Internationalisation Of MSMEs. November 2025, Esya Centre.

An Empirical Appraisal of the Children’s Data Privacy Provisions in the DPDPA

Description: This report aims to understand the impact of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act’s (DPDPA’s) restrictions on the processing of children’s personal data. In particular, it focuses on three aspects – (i) the impact of the DPDPA’s verifiable parental consent (“VPC”) requirement on small businesses and children; (ii) the impact of the DPDPA’s restrictions on personalised digital experiences and content for children; and (iii) the impact of the DPDPA’s restrictions on targeted advertising on businesses that produce products and services for children, especially those that may be beneficial to children’s development.

Attribution: Shweta Venkatesan, Meghna Bal, and Vikash Gautam, An Empirical Appraisal of the Children’s Data Privacy Provisions in the DPDPA, September 2025, Esya Centre.

Sideloading: A National Security Threat

Description: Competition authorities, in India and across the globe, are increasingly proscribing sideloading. Sideloading entails downloading an application from outside the perimeter of a first-party app store, such as, the Apple AppStore or the Google Play Store.

In India, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs introduced the Draft Digital Competition Bill (DDCB) 2024. The DDCB introduces ex-ante obligations for large digital entities classified as “Systemically Significant Digital Enterprises” in the name of enhancing fairness and contestability. Section 13(a) of the Bill prohibits these entities from restricting or impeding the ability of users to download third-party applications or software. This means that even the warning shown to Android users about the risks of sideloading would not be permitted under this provision.

This report evaluates the security implications of enabling sideloading in the interest of promoting digital competition.

Attribution: Karnal Singh, Meghna Bal and Mohit Chawdhry. Sideloading: A National Security Threat. Issue No. 52, 2025, Esya Centre.

Dark Patterns in Indian Retail: An Empirical Examination

Description: This report explores the increasing use of dark patterns in India’s retail sector. India’s retail sector is a cornerstone of its economic growth, contributing Rs 20.18 lakh crore in Goods and Services Tax (GST) collections in FY 2024 and ranking among the top five start-up segments in the country. However, this sector is facing rising scrutiny for employing manipulative design tactics that undermine user autonomy.

This report finds that dark patterns are prevalent across both online and offline retail environments, though they are more readily identifiable in digital contexts. It critiques the disproportionate regulatory focus on e-commerce, noting that many of the flagged practices resemble long-standing marketing strategies. In this context, an ex-ante regulatory framework may not be appropriate for dark pattern regulation. 

The report recommends a reliance on a principles-based approach that emphasizes transparency and willful consent to safeguard consumer interest while mitigating the risk of harming innovation.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Dr Vikash Gautam, and Tamanna Sharma. Dark Patterns in Indian Retail: An Empirical Examination, Issue No. 51, 2025, Esya Centre.

Assessing the Impact of the Draft Digital Competition Bill , 2024 on the Indian Economy

Description: This report analyses the economic impact of ex-ante competition regulation on digital markets in India. While digital markets share similarities with traditional markets, they possess distinct characteristics that have attracted the attention of antitrust regulators. Drawing on empirical research, the report assesses how a shift from ex-post to ex-ante regulation affects economic welfare indicators such as producer and consumer surplus, productivity, investment, and employment.

Attribution: Dr Vikash Gautam and Meghna Bal. Assessing the Impact of the Draft Digital Competition Bill, 2024 on the Indian Economy. Issue No. 50, 2025, Esya Centre.

Rethinking Data and Competition : A Critical Assessment of the Data-Driven Market Tipping Theory

Description: This paper focuses on data-driven network effects as a purported driver of tipping—namely, the theory that both direct and indirect network effects, fuelled by data accumulation, reduce the cost of innovation for first movers and enable them to entrench their market positions and monopolize digital ecosystems. It argues that while this theory is intuitively appealing, it rests on a narrow and increasingly outdated understanding of how data functions in digital markets. Its continued dominance in policy discourse risks misdiagnosing the sources of market power and incentivizing regulatory overreach. Instead, competition law frameworks must adopt a more nuanced, evidence-based approach—one that accounts for the fluidity, heterogeneity, and strategic deployment of data, rather than treating it as a static source of monopolistic power. By doing so, regulators can better distinguish between genuinely exclusionary conduct and competitive, innovation-driven behaviour in the digital economy.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Shweta Venkatesan and Mohit Chawdhry, Rethinking Data and Competition: A Critical Assessment of The Data-Driven Market Tipping Theory, Issue No. 50, 2025, Esya Centre

Web 3.0 Gaming in Crypto and Fiat Arcade: A Token-based Market Assessment

Description: This report addresses important gaps in the understanding of W3G by examining its market characteristics, relationships with other financial instruments, and investment appeal. It analyses key aspects such as the factors driving user adoption of W3G – including play-to-earn (P2E) models, social engagement, and gaming environment interoperability – as well as the diverse monetisation strategies underpinning the W3G ecosystem. The report also evaluates the risk-return dynamics of W3G tokens in comparison to cryptoassets and fiat currencies.

Attribution: Dr. Vikash Gautam. Web 3.0 Gaming in Crypto and Fiat Arcade: A Token-based Market Assessment. Issue No. 049, February 2025, Esya Centre.

A Survey of Indian AI Start-ups in Agriculture: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations for the Way Forward

Description: With agriculture supporting over 70% of rural households in India, AI-based agritech solutions have the potential to transform the sector by enhancing productivity, optimizing resources, and mitigating climate challenges. In this report, Meghna Bal, Mohit Chawdhry, and Akanksha Dutta explore how Indian AI agritech start-ups are pioneering solutions across the agricultural value chain, from soil health monitoring to livestock management and weather prediction.  The report provides insights from our survey of start-ups: AI-Genix International Pvt. Ltd, Areete.AI, Krisiyukta, and Digicrop Agriculture Solutions,  which are at the forefront of providing AI-driven agritech solutions.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Mohit Chawdhry, and Akanksha Dutta. A Survey of Indian AI Start-ups in Agriculture: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations for the Way Forward. Issue No. 048, January 2025, Esya Centre.

Drafting Standards for AI Systems: Critiques of International Approaches and Recommendations for India

Description: This report offers a detailed analysis of global AI governance standards, particularly the AI Risk Management Framework (AI RMF) by NIST and ISO 42001:2023. It critiques these international frameworks for being overly generalized, focusing on their "one-framework-fits-all" approach, which may not adequately address the diverse applications and contexts of AI technologies. The report advocates for a tailored approach to AI governance in India, moving away from broad frameworks to more specific, context-driven standards.

Attribution: Meghna Bal. Drafting Standards for AI Systems: Critiques of International Approaches and Recommendations for India. October 2024, Esya Centre.

Towards a Stablecoin Regulatory Framework in India

Description: Stablecoins are a distinct class of virtual digital assets (VDAs) backed by fiat currencies, commodities, or other assets. They aim to maintain a stable value, thereby distinguishing them from other VDAs. The increasing prominence of stablecoins, especially in developing economies like India, necessitates the development of a balanced regulatory framework to leverage their potential while addressing associated risks. In light of the current absence of stablecoin-specific regulations in India, this document proposes a four-step process for developing a comprehensive regulatory framework.

Attribution: Mohit Chawdhry. Towards a Stablecoin Regulatory Framework in India. August 2024, Esya Centre.

User Engagement in Traditional Financial, Crypto, and Stablecoin Markets in India

Description: In recent years, several surveys have been conducted to understand the demographic characteristics of crypto-asset users and their motivations for adoption. However, a holistic assessment of user investment portfolios that encompass the various instruments in the crypto space, alongside traditional financial instruments, is lacking. This report attempts to fill this gap by analysing user engagement with assets like gold, equity/stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and cryptoassets of various types (i.e. unbacked cryptoassets such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, nonfungible tokens or NFTs and stablecoins).

Attribution: Vikash Gautam. User Engagement in Traditional Financial, Crypto, and Stablecoin Markets in India. July 2024, Esya Centre.

A Survey-Based Assessment of the Draft Digital Competition Bill’s Impact on Consumer Welfare in Markets

Description: This report analyses the potential impact of the ex-ante regulation proposed in the Draft Digital Competition Bill, 2024 (DDCB) on consumers. It presents findings from a survey of 2,028 consumers from 28 Indian states we conducted in February and March 2024.

Attribution: Meghna Bal, Dr. Vikash Gautam, Tamanna Sharma, and Mohit Chawdhry, A Survey-Based Assessment of the Draft Digital Competition Bill’s Impact on Consumer Welfare in Markets. July 2024, Esya Centre.