A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Draft Digital Competition Bill, 2024 on MSMEs in India

Description: This paper seeks to understand the extent to which micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) rely on large digital platforms to advertise to and attract customers, and the impact on MSMEs when regulation or legislation restricts them from doing do so. The triggers for this research paper are developments in some countries to enact ex ante antitrust regulations that seek to limit the ability of digital platforms to provide effective advertising and other services. These rules ignore the well-recognised benefits that MSMEs derive from accessing them.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Dr Vikash Gautam. A Survey-Based Assessment of the Impact of the Draft Digital Competition Bill, 2024 on MSMEs in India. March 2024, Esya Centre.

An Empirical Evaluation of the Implementation Challenges of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023

Description: This report examines the challenges to implementing India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (DPDPA). Seeking to understand the operational and technical hurdles faced by organisations to the Act’s enforcement, the report delves into aspects related to the implementation of consent mechanisms, provisions for children and persons with disabilities, and the intricacies of appointing data protection officers. Specifically, it explores the internal processes required for compliance and establishes the timelines necessary for meeting the DPDPA’s obligations.

Attribution: Meghna Bal. An Empirical Evaluation of the Implementation Challenges of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Insights and Recommendations for the Way Forward. January 2024, Esya Centre.

The Pitfalls of Regulating M2M Communication Services under Telecom Law

Description: This primer questions the effect of regulating machine-to-machine (M2M) communication services by using telecom law in India. It responds to the Draft Indian Telecommunication Bill 2022, on which comments have been sought by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), which defines a ‘telecommunication service’ to include ‘machine-to-machine communication services’ – suggesting that telecom style regulation may be applied to M2M communications as well. It outlines the technology that underpins M2M services, the regulatory issues that may arise as they gain use, asks whether telecom law is suited to redressing these concerns, and concludes with recommendations.

Attribution: Mohit Chawdhry, The Pitfalls of Regulating M2M Communication Services under Telecom Law, October 2023, Esya Centre.

Navigating Approaches to AI Governance: Charting a Pathway for India

Description: The clarion call for the regulation of artificial intelligence (AI) is growing louder across the world. Different jurisdictions have either introduced legislation to regulate the technology or are in the process of doing so. Aside from hard-coded laws, a bevy of voluntary standards have emerged around trust and safety concepts surrounding the deployment and development of AI. This paper presents a roundup of different approaches to AI regulation and governance, as well as the intersection of existing legal doctrines and AI. The purpose of this paper is to put forth considerations for Indian policymakers to take into account when deciding on AI governance down the road.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Vivan Sharan. Navigating Approaches to AI Governance: Charting a Pathway for India. August 2023, Esya Centre.

New-Age Digital Consumption in India: A Survey of Social Media, OTT Content and Online Gaming

Description: This report examines the consumption and engagement patterns of users in India’s digital market. Three services from the digital consumption basket – social media, over the top (OTT) content services and online gaming – are in focus here. Each of these has witnessed sharp growth in its user base, revenues and innovation in recent years. The three services have also had a significant impact on users’ time-use for skill development, networking, and leisure/entertainment.

Attribution: Professor Rajat Sharma and Dr Vikash Gautam. New Age Digital Consumption in India: A Survey of Social Media, OTT Content and Online Gaming. July 2023, Esya Centre.

Why India Needs an Intermediary Liability Framework for Web3 and What it Should Look Like

Description: The World Economic Forum defines Web3 as a growing segment of decentralised technologies that help “establish provenance, veracity, and value of data.” Web3 technologies, which include cryptography, distributed ledger systems, smart contracts and fungible and non-fungible digital assets, aim to redress the centralisation of data, with large Web2 internet companies, by returning ownership and control to users. This paper argues that the digital product aspect of Web3 should be regulated under a specialised intermediary liability framework targeting centralised Web3 or Web2.5 entities. Such a framework would ensure Web3 digital product risk redressal, while still enabling entrepreneurs to innovate.

Attribution: Meghna Bal and Mohit Chawdhry. Why India Needs an Intermediary Liability Framework for Web3 and What it Should Look Like. August 2023, Esya Centre.

Unbundling the demand for a Network Usage Fee

Description: Major telecom service providers (telecom operators or telcos) in India are arguing for the introduction of a network usage fee for over-the-top (OTT) applications. They contend that there is currently a structural imbalance as OTT platforms allegedly benefit from telecom operator funded networks but do not invest in creating, operating, maintaining or expanding them. Relying on secondary research, this report evaluates the merits of their assertions. Broadly, the literature available indicates that contentions in favour of network usage fees may be incorrect.

Attribution: Noyanika Batta & Meghna Bal. Unbundling the demand for a Network Usage Fee. July 2023, Esya Centre.

Assigning Spectrum for Satellite Services in India

Description: The release of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India’s consultation paper on “Assignment of Spectrum for Space-based Communication Services” in April 2023, triggered a debate on whether or not spectrum should be assigned across satcom services via auctions. It has also sparked concerns regarding access to sufficient satellite spectrum amongst global satellite operators such as Amazon (Project Kuiper) and OneWeb who want to enter the Indian market. The paper comes at a time when TRAI is consulting with stakeholders on spectrum assignment for space-based communication services. It presents a comprehensive analysis of technical, regulatory, and economic arguments on this issue and echoes the view of majority stakeholders.

Attribution: Tamanna Sharma and Niharika. Assigning Spectrum for Satellite Services in India. June 2023,Esya Centre.

Information Warfare Through Social Media Platforms

Description: This paper focuses on information warfare operations conducted by foreign adversaries through social media platforms. Specifically, it considers challenges related to social media and information warfare in the Indian context and makes suggestions on how India may mitigate such threats, in particular by leveraging and partnering with domestic social media platforms. The recommendations in the paper emanate from global best practices in responding to these threats.

Attribution: Vaishnavi Prasad and Meghna Bal. Information Warfare Through Social Media Platforms. March 2023, Esya Centre.

Regulating Media Ownership in India: Challenges and the Way Ahead

Description: In April 2022, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), the telecom and broadcast regulator, released a consultation paper (CP) on ‘Issues Relating to Media Ownership’. The Esya Centre and the Internet Freedom Foundation brought together media business owners, journalists, academics, and other stakeholders for a roundtable on media ownership in India. The stakeholders discussed various issues raised in the CP, including the links between plurality and ownership concentration, the adequacy of the existing legal framework, and difficulties in assessing ownership and control. This paper presents key takeaways from the discussion on the central aspects of the TRAI CP. It also suggests recommendations for policymakers on how the regulation of ownership in media markets can be improved.

Attribution: Mohit Chawdhry. Regulating Media Ownership in India: Challenges and the Way Ahead. March 2023, Esya Centre.

Addressing Regulatory Fragmentation in Cross-Border Data Flows

Description: The rules governing cross-border data flows are becoming increasingly fragmented, at the domestic and international level. In April 2020, some 128 of 194 countries had data protection rules in place. While these laws manifest different approaches to cross-border data transfers, trends suggest that restrictions are growing on free data flows. This paper examines the competing approaches to cross-border data flows and identifies some challenges. It also explores India’s new approach to cross-border data flows, and the opportunity the country can seize to champion a more harmonised regulatory approach.

Attribution: Vaishnavi Prasad. Addressing Regulatory Fragmentation in Cross-Border Data Flows. February 2023, Esya Centre.

Price Discovery in the NFT Market

Description: This paper examines the price discovery mechanism of non-fungible tokens, or NFTs. That is, how do the forces of supply and demand determine an NFT transaction? We use data on some 55,000 unique NFTs with 16,000 creators/artists, and 15,000 collectors/buyers on Foundation, one of the largest NFT exchange platforms, to address this question.

Attribution: Dr Vikash Gautam and Tamanna Sharma. Price Discovery in the NFT Market. December 2022, Esya Centre.

Regulation of OTT Communications Services: Justified Concern or Exaggerated Fear?

Description: Telecom service providers (TSPs) have been pushing for the regulation of over-the-top (OTT) service providers in India since 2015. Meanwhile, OTT firms maintain that their services are not comparable with telecom. The debate centres on two issues in particular: same service, same rules and infrastructure cost sharing. The merits of the TSPs’ demands and counterarguments are explored in this paper.

Part 1 of this paper outlines the demands raised by TSPs and the merits of these from a historical and legal perspective. 

Part 2 of the paper compares OTT regulation trends across some jurisdictions. The aim is to trace the changes made to telecom regulations internationally in response to emerging technologies and ask whether OTTs have been brought under the regulatory regime for TSPs. 

Finally, in Part 3 of the paper, through insights from historical and legal analysis and from a comparative standpoint, we recommend the approach the government should adopt.

Attribution: Noyanika Batta. Regulation of OTT Communications Services: Justified Concern or Exaggerated Fear? January 2023, Esya Centre.

Market Study on Immersive Technologies in India: Propelling The AVGC Sector

Description: This report explores how immersive technologies will change the way creators produce content and audiences consume it.. The report also assesses the readiness and competitiveness of India’s AR/VR industry and suggests some policy measures that could further bolster the sector based on insights from semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders in the AR/VR ecosystem.

Attribution: Vani Tripathi Tikoo, Akshat Agrawal, Varun Kakar, Mohit Chawdhry and Vaishnavi Prasad. Market Study on Immersive Technologies in India: Propelling the AVGC Sector. November 2022, Esya Centre.

Roadmap for a Future-Ready Digital India Act

Synopsis: The Indian Government recently announced that it will introduce the Digital India Act, a new information technology law, that will replace the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000. Reports indicate that the new legislation will focus on engendering greater “openness, safety, trust and accountability” in the digital economy. The emphasis on accountability possibly means a recasting of the intermediary liability regime, to place greater responsibility on the shoulders of digital businesses. Indeed, it is important to introduce measures that enable the State to safeguard public interest and rights online. However, it is also important that in a bid to usher in greater liability for digital businesses, decisionmakers do not compromise on economic goals, such as the target of a trillion-dollar digital economy by 2025.

This report argues that the goals of achieving economic growth and addressing public interest concerns online are not mutually exclusive. Specifically, it lays out principles and objectives that will enable the Digital India Act to improve enforcement capabilities in the online realm and also grant digital businesses greater regulatory certainty – an important consideration for technological and economic progress.

Attribution: Meghna Bal. Roadmap for a Future-Ready Digital India Act. September 2022, Esya Centre.

The Metaverse Primer: A Technological and Legal Overview from an Indian Perspective

Synopsis: With virtual reality set to take over the internet, the virtual worlds we have seen so far will be transformed beyond recognition. But what exactly is the metaverse? What will it look like? What are the opportunities and challenges it poses? What is the future of the metaverse in India? This report attempts to answer some of the questions that lie at the heart of this technology.

Attribution: Noyanika Batta. The Metaverse Primer: A Technological and Legal Overview From an Indian Perspective. September 2022, Esya Centre.

Offshore Online Betting and Gambling in India: A Risk Assessment

Synopsis: This paper describes how offshore betting and gambling websites are violating Indian law with impunity. By operating from foreign jurisdictions, they are able to evade enforcement actions by Indian authorities. Blocking access to these websites and preventing offshore betting and gambling firms from operating in India is crucial to the welfare of Indian citizens. While mechanisms exist to effect such remedies, they are difficult to enforce for reasons we attempt to identify. We map the offshore betting and gambling ecosystem to understand its scope of operations and the nature of its harms, in order to suggest remedies in India.

Attribution: Priyesh Mishra. Offshore Online Betting and Gambling in India: A Risk Assessment. July 2022, Esya Centre.

Streaming Platforms and the Call for a Level Playing Field

Synopsis: This paper is to understand what the clash between traditional TV distributors and streaming platforms is really about, and if tighter regulation is indeed the answer to the problem or if a solution lies elsewhere.

Attribution: Megha Bahree. Streaming Platforms and the Call for a Level Playing Field. June 2022, Esya Centre.